Center for Peace and Reconciliation
EspañolDEMILITARIZATION AND PERMANENT SECURITY PROGRAM
Research Projects
Comparative Civil-Military Relations:
Understanding Mechanisms of Control in Small Democracies
(published in Spanish in 1997, English articles being edited)This publication resulted from a two-year study of civil-military relations in small democracies throughout the world. The purpose of this project is to contribute to the consolidation of the new Central American democracies by disseminating information on mechanisms employed by other small states in the difficult task of subordinating the armed forces to democratically elected authorities. This goal is a challenging one for the Central American political regimes, as they have co-existed for decades with praetorian, tutelary, and repressive military institutions. Internal armed conflict in Central America and global confrontation over the last four decades heightened the political power of the militaries.
In light of this historical relationship, the Arias Foundation's Center for Peace and Reconciliation undertook an extensive, comparative research project aimed at identifying institutional, historical, and social patterns that would help explain the successes and failures of asserting civilian supremacy over military institutions. A sample of twenty small democracies was chosen in the most representative manner possible, using criteria such as the actual operation of their democratic systems, their geopolitical significance and their population. In order to examine each case study, a broad list of variables was developed and divided into four general areas: the historical and cultural context of civil-military relations, the legal and constitutional framework, mechanisms of military justice, and finally, the de facto interaction between civilians and the military.
Nearly one year after beginning this project, the authors of the country studies were invited to present their work during a seminar held in San José, Costa Rica, from August 1-3, 1996. In addition to numerous highly esteemed academics, this seminar featured politicians-including ministers and members of parliament-military officers, journalists, and representatives of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) from Latin America, the Caribbean, the United States, Canada, Western Europe, Africa and Asia. In total, more than 80 people from 24 countries participated in the seminar. The rich discussions that took place provided the authors with valuable input for their final papers.
The final version of the study, which contains the majority of the case studies written, was published in Spanish in 1997. The English versions of the articles are currently being edited.
Soldiers as Businessmen:
Military Businesses in Central America
(published in Spanish and English in 1998)The involvement of Central American militaries in business activities is a relatively recent phenomenon that requires extensive analysis. The end of the Cold War and the subsequent consolidation of democratic systems create the perfect opportunity to undertake such an analysis and to initiate dialogue on the issue. With the aim of improving civil-military relations in Central America, the Center for Peace and Reconciliation of the Arias Foundation commissioned a study on the business activities of the militaries in Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador and Nicaragua. This study, made possible by generous funding from the Royal Government of Norway and the Swiss Development Cooperation, is the first of its kind in the region.
The research focused on four specific areas. First, the study analyzed the military pension funds in all four countries studied. These funds are the channel for the majority of the armed forces' financial activities. Second, the research concentrated on the areas in which military businesses operate as well as the legal controls that monitor their activities. Also examined were the opinions and perceptions of this phenomenon expressed by both representatives of civilian groups and the military itself. Finally, the study aimed to present a brief historical summary of the emergence of military-owned enterprises in each country and compare military pension systems with those of other employees of both the public and the private sector in order to determine if the military receives preferential treatment from the state.
The final version of the study was published in both Spanish and English in May 1998 and is available to the public.
Military Expenditures in Guatemala:
Fiscal and Macroeconomic Impact 1969-1995
(publication in Spanish in July 1998, English publication forthcoming)In 1996, while the government of Guatemala and the URNG (Guatemala National Revolutionary Union) guerrillas were negotiating the end of the longest civil war in Central America, the Arias Foundation and the organization Economists Allied for Arms Reduction (ECAAR) initiated a study entitled "Military Expenditures: Fiscal and Macroeconomic Impact: 1969-1995." The objective of this project is to examine, from a rigorously scientific perspective, the economic impact of military expenditures on the Guatemalan economy during the last quarter century, focusing on both its fiscal and macroeconomic effects. This research is intended to help clarify the military's role in the economy during this painful period in Guatemala's history and to provide Guatemalan society with information useful for defining an institutional framework conducive to both democratic consolidation and economic development.
The preliminary results of the study were given to the negotiators of the peace accords in mid-1996 for use in their discussion on the "Accord on Strengthening Civilian Power and the Role of the Army in a Democratic Society." These same results were later presented to a diverse audience of Guatemalans in October 1996. Dr. Thomas Scheetz, one of the authors of the study, who is a professor of economics at the National University of Quilmes, Argentina, is using the information collected to develop an econometric model, in coordination with Lawrence Klein, Nobel Prize winner for Economics and founding member of ECAAR.
Construction of Gender Identity in Central American Security Forces
(in progress)Throughout history, security forces have embodied the highest patriarchal masculine values: bravery, cruelty, violence, self-sufficiency, and power. Such values continue to dominate the training received by future members of Central American security forces.
These patriarchal values, which reinforce discriminatory and violent human interaction, have a lasting effect on society as a whole. Informed by different means of communication and by the efforts of human rights activists, civil society has begun to understand the consequences of the masculine model promoted by the security forces. Various media sources have informed the public of cruel initiation rituals in the armed forces, sexual violence against women in military academies, disappearances and mysterious deaths of the members of academies, etc. Human rights activists have pointed out cruel and consistent human rights violations, while feminist movements have denounced domestic violence and abuse of power by members of the security forces.
However, none of these analyses has focused on the construction of gender identity, or how distortions are reinforced by the training given to future members of security forces. This project presents an innovative perspective on the problem and has the potential to initiate profound changes in the security forces. The study also strives to aid security forces in complying with the values expressed by the global community in the International Declaration of Human Rights.
This project further seeks to analyze how the military and police academies in Central America reinforce a certain gender identity and how this identity is often manifested in civil society through higher levels of violence, oppression, and discrimination. The project endeavors to rectify the erroneous gender perception that proliferates in the security academies and to reduce the levels of societal violence it produces.
The project began in May 1997 and is the first joint effort between the Center for Peace and Reconciliation and the Center for Human Progress of the Arias Foundation. The project was made possible by funding from the Regional Central American Office of HIVOS, a Dutch NGO.
Regional Projects
The Central American Dialogue for Security and Demilitarization
(in progress)The Central American Dialogue for Security and Demilitarization is a regional forum comprised of representatives of civil society organizations, the clergy, state officials, academics, parliamentarians, military officers, politicians and other members of Central American society. The primary objective of this network is to encourage dialogue and action that advocates demilitarization in the region and promotes a new concept of human security understood as security against poverty, ignorance, political oppression, etc. This new definition of security is intended to replace the concept of national security which dominated during the Cold War and was used as an ideological justification for the militarization of the region in the past. The dialogue also seeks solutions to security problems from a democratic, rather than military, point of view. Similarly, it aims to promote demilitarization as an essential condition for the consolidation of peace and for sustainable human development in Central America.
The Central American Dialogue, made possible by the generous economic support of the Ford Foundation, is organized through national chapters in Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama. The national chapters initiate their own projects, which are supported by a special fund of the Central American Dialogue. Periodically, regional activities and projects are also carried out. In addition, the Dialogue produces its own monthly publication that is distributed free of charge to its members and a diverse audience in Central America and outside the region.
An Educational Strategy for Peace, Costa Rica
(in progress)The main objective of the project "Building Peace in the Community: an Educational Strategy for Peace" is to construct solidarity for peace by creating awareness and understanding among students of the work carried out by different Nobel Peace laureates, including the Dalai Lama, Nelson Mandela, Aung San Suu Kyi, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Oscar Arias, Rigoberta Menchú, Betty Williams, and Mairead Corrigan Maguire.
By working with the Ministry of Public Education, this project will be disseminated throughout the country. Currently, 165 teachers (primary and secondary school) from the seven provinces of Costa Rica are being trained to teach their students about peace. The course includes topics relating to peace, human rights, tolerance, racism and ecology, among others. This program is under the auspices of the PeaceJam Foundation.
This effort presents a great opportunity for youth to learn about world leaders and their teachings. It is hoped that this experience will inspire a change in attitude among the new generation and translate into greater understanding and responsibility among future generations. The project also will explore new and interesting material and approaches to learning in an attempt to improve public education.
Projects outside of Central America
International Code of Conduct on Arms Transfers
(in progress)
Indiscriminate weapons sales foster political instability and human rights violations, prolong violent conflicts, and weaken diplomatic efforts to resolve differences peacefully. Arms transfers often take place under a cloud of secrecy and generally respond to the desires of a few while ignoring the needs and rights of the majority. Sadly, many governments continue to divert scarce resources toward arms purchases while their people live in abject poverty.
The Arias Foundation for Peace and Human Progress, in conjunction with BASIC and Saferworld, two organizations that specialize in arms control, seeks to contribute to world peace and human security through the approval of a global code of ethics governing the sale of all types of conventional weapons. This project builds on similar initiatives in the United States and Europe to establish national and regional codes of conduct.
The first phase of the project culminated on May 29, 1997, when eight Nobel Peace laureates met in New York and signed an International Code of Conduct on Arms Transfers, written by a larger commission of seventeen Nobel Peace laureates. The second phase consists of building support for the national and regional initiatives while at the same time publicizing and promoting this International Code through the international media and international networks of non-governmental organizations. The ultimate goal is to enlist formal support for the Code from governments around the world.
Once in effect, this International Code of Conduct on Arms Transfers would prevent non-democratic governments from building destabilizing arsenals. Governments which systematically abuse internationally recognized human rights through practices such as torture or arbitrary executions would not receive military training. Countries that commit genocide would not be able to buy munitions. Governments engaged in armed aggression against other countries or peoples could not buy missiles. This Code of Conduct would undeniably promote global peace and security and protect human rights.
The Challenges of Demilitarization for Leadership in Africa
(in progress)Sub-Saharan Africa is one of the poorest regions in the world and yet, as a percentage of government resources, its countries have the highest military expenditures. Clearly, the nations of Africa cannot continue with this trend and instead should be investing their scarce resources in education and health. In order to promote demilitarization in Africa, the Center for Peace and Reconciliation, in conjunction with the Africa Leadership Forum and the United Nations Development Program (UNDP)-Tanzania, is organizing a conference on demilitarization that will be held in Arusha, Tanzania, from July 22-24, 1998.
The conference will systematically analyze the key problems of militarization, such as arms trafficking, political instability, and wasted resources. In addition, the conference will focus on the principle challenges created by demilitarization, such as the demobilization and reintegration of combatants, and the need to create mechanisms for collective security. It is hoped that the Central American experience regarding demilitarization and strengthening democratic institutions will be valuable to Africa, and, as a result, distinguished Central American political leaders will be invited to attend the conference, thereby contributing to increased cooperation between the two regions. The participants, including political leaders and representatives of African civil society, will design their own strategies and will create permanent working groups to further the goals of the conference.
Conflict Prevention
Democratic Governance and Development
Index from the Center for Peace and Reconciliation
cpr@arias.or.cr
